Toxicosis with grapes or raisins causing acute kidney injury and neurological signs in dogs.

BACKGROUND: The ingestion of grapes or raisins has been reported to cause acute kidney injury (AKI) in dogs, with a clinical picture dominated by early gastrointestinal signs and rapidly developing uremia. Ataxia is mentioned in a few reports, but not further characterized. OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the clinical, laboratory, and pathological features of dogs diagnosed with grape or raisin toxicosis (GRT) with emphasis on renal and neurological manifestations, compared to a control group of dogs with AKI from other causes. ANIMALS: Fifteen client-owned dogs with GRT and 74 control dogs. METHODS: Retrospective study over 17 months. RESULTS: All dogs with GRT were presented with severe AKI (grade 4, n = 5; grade 5, n = 10). Eleven dogs (73%) had marked forebrain, cerebellar, or vestibular signs. These manifestations dominated the clinical picture in some dogs, but were not associated with the severity of azotemia or the presence of systemic hypertension. Eight dogs (53%) survived, and 5 dogs experienced a complete neurological recovery. Causes of death were unrelated to the neurological manifestations. Neuropathological examination of 4 dogs did not identify any structural central nervous system abnormality. Only 2 control dogs (3%) displayed neurological signs with seizures unrelated to the AKI; 42 control dogs (57%) survived. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE: Severe forebrain, cerebellar, or vestibular signs may be an important feature of GRT and dominate the early clinical picture. The described features suggest a reversible functional brain injury specific to GRT and unrelated to uremia.

Correlative Magnetic Resonance Imaging and Histopathology in Small Ruminant Listeria Rhombencephalitis.

Background: Listeria rhombencephalitis, infection of the brainstem with Listeria monocytogenes, occurs mainly in humans and farmed ruminants and is associated with high fatality rates. Small ruminants (goats and sheep) are a large animal model due to neuropathological similarities. The purpose of this study was to define magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) features of listeria rhombencephalitis in naturally infected small ruminants and correlate them with histopathology. Secondly, the purpose of this study was to compare the results with MRI findings reported in humans. Methods: Twenty small ruminants (13 sheep and 7 goats) with listeria rhombencephalitis were prospectively enrolled and underwent in vivo MRI of the brain, including T2-weighted, fluid attenuation inversion recovery, and T1-weighted sequences pre- and post-contrast administration and postmortem histopathology. In MRI, lesions were characterized by location, extent, border definition, signal intensity, and contrast enhancement. In histopathology, the location, cell type, severity, and chronicity of inflammatory infiltrates and signs of vascular damage were recorded. In addition, histopathologic slides were matched to MRIs, and histopathologic and MRI features were compared. Results: Asymmetric T2-hyperintense lesions in the brainstem were observed in all animals and corresponded to the location and pattern of inflammatory infiltrates in histopathology. Contrast enhancement in the brainstem was observed in 10 animals and was associated with vessel wall damage and perivascular fibrin accumulation in 8 of 10 animals. MRI underestimated the extension into rostral brain parts and the involvement of trigeminal ganglia and meninges. Conclusion: Asymmetric T2-hyperintense lesions in the brainstem with or without contrast enhancement can be established as criteria for the diagnosis of listeria rhombencephalitis in small ruminants. Brainstem lesions were similar to human listeria rhombencephalitis in terms of signal intensity and location. Different from humans, contrast enhancement was a rare finding, and abscessation was not observed.

Correction: Mutations in MITF and PAX3 Cause "Splashed White" and Other White Spotting Phenotypes in Horses.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1002653.].

Evaluation of IL-1ß levels in epilepsy and traumatic brain injury in dogs.

BACKGROUND: Epilepsy is a common neurological disease in dogs affecting approximately 0.6-0.75% of the canine population. There is much evidence of neuroinflammation presence in epilepsy, creating new possibilities for the treatment of the disease. An increased expression of interleukin-1 beta (IL-1ß) was reported in epileptogenic foci. We hypothesized that there is an elevation of IL-1ß in serum and CSF of dogs with epilepsy, as well as in serum of dogs with TBI, reflecting involvement of this cytokine in pathophysiology of naturally occurring canine epilepsy in a clinical setting. RESULTS: IL-1ß levels were evaluated in CSF and serum of six healthy and 51 dogs with epilepsy (structural and idiopathic). In 16 dogs with TBI, only serum was tested. IL-1ß concentrations in CSF were not detectable. Serum values were not elevated in dogs with TBI in comparison to healthy controls (p > 0.05). However, dogs with epilepsy had increased levels of IL-1ß in serum (p = 0.003) regardless of the underlying cause of the disease (p = 0.0045). There was no significant relationship between the variables and IL-1ß levels. Statistically noticeable (p = 0.0630) was that approximately 10% of dog with epilepsy (R2 = 0.105) had increased seizure frequency and IL-1ß elevation. CONCLUSION: Increased IL-1ß levels were detected in the peripheral blood in dogs with idiopathic and structural epilepsy leading to the assumption that there is an involvement of inflammation in pathophysiology of epilepsy which should be considered in the search for new therapeutic strategies for this disease. However, to better understand the pathogenic role of this cytokine in epilepsy, further evaluation of IL-1ß in brain tissue is desired.

Analysis of blood degradation products and ferritin in the cerebrospinal fluid of dogs with acute thoracolumbar intervertebral disk extrusion, a prospective pilot study.

BACKGROUND: Hemorrhage in the spinal canal leads to further damage of the spinal cord influencing outcome in dogs with intervertebral disk (IVD) extrusion. The aim of the study was to evaluate blood degradation products and ferritin in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) of dogs with thoracolumbar IVD extrusion, and their association to clinical parameters and MRI findings. RESULTS: In the CSF of dogs with IVD extrusion, both net oxyhemoglobin absorption (NOA) and net bilirubin absorption (NBA) were significantly higher compared to the control groups of dogs with steroid responsive meningitis arteritis (SRMA) and idiopathic epilepsy (IE) (P < 0.001), but NOA compared to the idiopathic epilepsy group contaminated artificially with blood (IEc) was not (P = 0.890). Ferritin concentration was significantly higher in dogs with IVD extrusion compared to dogs with IE (P = 0.034), but not to dogs with SRMA (P = 0.526). There was no association between NOA, NBA or ferritin concentration and severity or duration of clinical signs. In dogs with a higher ferritin concentration the outcome was better (P = 0.018). In dogs with evidence of hemorrhage on MRI, NOA and NBA were significantly higher (P = 0.016, P = 0.009), but not ferritin (P = 0.0628). CONCLUSION AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE: Quantification of blood degradation products and ferritin in the CSF of dogs to assess subarachnoidal hemorrhage is feasible; however, larger case numbers are needed to evaluate the relevance of NBA and ferritin as prognostic indicators.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging Signal Alterations in Paraspinal Muscles in Dogs with Acute Thoracolumbar Intervertebral Disk Extrusion.

Muscle signal alteration detected on MRI is seen in diverse pathologic conditions. We observed signal alterations within the paraspinal muscles in dogs with acute thoracolumbar intervertebral disk extrusion. The aim of this retrospective study was to describe MRI features of paraspinal muscle signal alteration in dogs with acute thoracolumbar intervertebral disk extrusion and to investigate an association of the signal alterations with neurological grade, type and location of intervertebral disk extrusion, degree of spinal cord compression, and presence of epidural hemorrhage. Medical records of dogs undergoing MRI because of thoracolumbar intervertebral disk extrusion between August 2014 and June 2016 were reviewed. MRI was evaluated for SI changes within the paravertebral musculature, their location, extension, affected muscles, contrast enhancement, and signal void in T2* sequences. Intervertebral disk herniation was categorized as acute non-compressive nucleus pulposus extrusion (ANNPE) or compressive intervertebral disk disease. In five patients, muscle biopsies of areas with signal intensity changes were taken during surgery. In total, 103 dogs were enrolled in the study. Paraspinal muscle signal alterations were visible in 37 dogs (36%) affecting the epaxial musculature (n = 17), hypaxial musculature (n = 12), or both (n = 8). All signal alterations were hyperintense on T2-weighted images and iso- or hypointense in T1-weighted images. Signal void in T2* was not observed in any dog. Postcontrast sequences were available in 30 of the 37 dogs and showed enhancement in 45%. There was neither an association with degree of compression nor epidural hemorrhage. Intervertebral disk extrusion caudal to L1 and a higher neurological grade was associated with the presence of muscle changes. Histopathology revealed mild to moderate acute muscle fiber degeneration with edema and necrosis in three of five samples. The MRI, as well as the muscle samples, show rather unspecific changes. The underlying pathomechanism might be related to ischemia or muscle spasm, but also denervation edema may explain the signal alteration.

Juvenile hyposomatotropism in a Somali cat presenting with seizures due to intermittent hypoglycaemia.

CASE SUMMARY: A 3-month-old intact male Somali cat was evaluated for a history of seizures, hypoglycaemia and mental dullness 4 weeks after being bitten in the head by a dog. The cat's body size and weight were approximately half that of his littermates and its haircoat was woolly, with fewer guard hairs. Multiple hypoglycaemic episodes were documented over a period of 4 weeks, which resolved rapidly after correction of the hypoglycaemia. Juvenile hyposomatotropism was presumptively diagnosed by demonstrating low circulating levels of insulin-like growth factor 1 and after exclusion of other endocrine and non-endocrine causes of small stature and hypoglycaemia. The cat's intermittent hypoglycaemia resolved spontaneously within 1 month and the cat never showed any more neurological signs. Nevertheless, the physical retardation and the coat abnormalities remained unchanged. A year later, the cat was diagnosed with chronic kidney disease IRIS stage 2. RELEVANCE AND NOVEL INFORMATION: Hyposomatotropism is an extremely rare feline endocrinopathy. This is the second case reported in the veterinary literature, and the only one to describe hypoglycaemic events associated with growth hormone deficiency. Although hypoglycaemia is one of the most common disease manifestations in children with pituitary dwarfism, this has not yet been reported in veterinary medicine.

Magnetic resonance imaging features of canine gliomatosis cerebri.

A retrospective, case series study was undertaken to identify magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) characteristics of gliomatosis cerebri in dogs. Fourteen dogs were included by review of histopathological records and contemporaneous MRI. On MRI, all lesions presented as ill-defined, intraaxial lesions within the left and right forebrain hemispheres with involvement of white and gray matter. Lesions presented as hyperintense areas on T2-weighted and FLAIR sequences and as hypointense or isointense areas on T1-weighted images, with mild parenchymal contrast enhancement in three dogs. Signal changes were noted in three to 10 cerebral lobes. Other most commonly affected structures were the thalamus (13), caudate nucleus (13), interthalamic adhesion (11), hypothalamus (11), callosal commissure (10), hippocampus (9), and quadrigeminal plate (8). Abnormalities within the caudal fossa were noted in 10 dogs. Solid tumor portions were identified in five dogs. The histopathological examination demonstrated in all dogs a widespread diffuse infiltration with neoplastic glial cells in white and gray matter with meningeal infiltration. Comparison between MRI and histopathology showed that all areas with signal changes on MRI corresponded to diffuse and dense infiltration with neoplastic cells. The signal intensity on T2-weighted and FLAIR images reflected the density of neoplastic cells. In all dogs, MRI underestimated lesion extent and meningeal infiltration. Involvement of the caudal fossa was not seen on MRI in three dogs. Despite this, MRI allowed identification of lesions extending into at least three cerebral lobes and therefore satisfying the criteria used for diagnosis of diffuse glioma with gliomatosis cerebri growth pattern in humans.

Comparison of the effects of 7.2% hypertonic saline and 20% mannitol on whole blood coagulation and platelet function in dogs with suspected intracranial hypertension - a pilot study.

BACKGROUND: Hyperosmolar therapy with either mannitol or hypertonic saline (HTS) is commonly used in the treatment of intracranial hypertension (ICH). In vitro data indicate that both mannitol and HTS affect coagulation and platelet function in dogs. The aim of this study was to compare the effects of 20% mannitol and 7.2% HTS on whole blood coagulation using rotational thromboelastometry (ROTEM®) and platelet function using a platelet function analyzer (PFA®) in dogs with suspected ICH. Thirty client-owned dogs with suspected ICH needing osmotherapy were randomized to receive either 20% mannitol (5 ml/kg IV over 15 min) or 7.2% HTS (4 ml/kg IV over 5 min). ROTEM® (EXTEM® and FIBTEM® assays) and PFA® analyses (collagen/ADP cartridges) were performed before (T0), as well as 5 (T5), 60 (T60) and 120 (T120) minutes after administration of HTS or mannitol. Data at T5, T60 and T120 were analyzed as a percentage of values at T0 for comparison between groups, and as absolute values for comparison between time points, respectively. RESULTS: No significant difference was found between the groups for the percentage change of any parameter at any time point except for FIBTEM® clotting time. Within each group, no significant difference was found between time points for any parameter except for FIBTEM® clotting time in the HTS group, and EXTEM® and FIBTEM® maximum clot firmness in the mannitol group. Median ROTEM® values lay within institutional reference intervals in both groups at all time points, whereas median PFA® values were above the reference intervals at T5 (both groups) and T60 (HTS group). CONCLUSIONS: Using currently recommended doses, mannitol and HTS do not differ in their effects on whole blood coagulation and platelet function in dogs with suspected ICH. Moreover, no relevant impairment of whole blood coagulation was found following treatment with either solution, whereas a short-lived impairment of platelet function was found after both solutions.

A SINE Insertion in ATP1B2 in Belgian Shepherd Dogs Affected by Spongy Degeneration with Cerebellar Ataxia (SDCA2).

Spongy degeneration with cerebellar ataxia (SDCA) is a genetically heterogeneous neurodegenerative disorder with autosomal recessive inheritance in Malinois dogs, one of the four varieties of the Belgian Shepherd breed. Using a combined linkage and homozygosity mapping approach we identified an ∼10.6 Mb critical interval on chromosome 5 in a Malinois family with four puppies affected by cerebellar dysfunction. Visual inspection of the 10.6 Mb interval in whole-genome sequencing data from one affected puppy revealed a 227 bp SINE insertion into the ATP1B2 gene encoding the ß2 subunit of the Na+/K+-ATPase holoenzyme (ATP1B2:c.130_131insLT796559.1:g.50_276). The SINE insertion caused aberrant RNA splicing. Immunohistochemistry suggested a reduction of ATP1B2 protein expression in the central nervous system of affected puppies. Atp1b2 knockout mice had previously been reported to show clinical and neurohistopathological findings similar to the affected Malinois puppies. Therefore, we consider ATP1B2:c.130_131ins227 the most likely candidate causative variant for a second subtype of SDCA in Malinois dogs, which we propose to term spongy degeneration with cerebellar ataxia subtype 2 (SDCA2). Our study further elucidates the genetic and phenotypic complexity underlying cerebellar dysfunction in Malinois dogs and provides the basis for a genetic test to eradicate one specific neurodegenerative disease from the breeding population in Malinois and the other varieties of the Belgian Shepherd breed. ATP1B2 thus represents another candidate gene for human inherited cerebellar ataxias, and SDCA2-affected Malinois puppies may serve as a naturally occurring animal model for this disorder.

Basal Autophagy Is Altered in Lagotto Romagnolo Dogs with an ATG4D Mutation.

A missense variant in the autophagy-related ATG4D-gene has been associated with a progressive degenerative neurological disease in Lagotto Romagnolo (LR) dogs. In addition to neural lesions, affected dogs show an extraneural histopathological phenotype characterized by severe cytoplasmic vacuolization, a finding not previously linked with disturbed autophagy in animals. Here we aimed at testing the hypothesis that autophagy is altered in the affected dogs, at reporting the histopathology of extraneural tissues and at excluding lysosomal storage diseases. Basal and starvation-induced autophagy were monitored by Western blotting and immunofluorescence of microtubule associated protein 1A/B light chain3 (LC3) in fibroblasts from 2 affected dogs. The extraneural findings of 9 euthanized LRs and skin biopsies from 4 living affected LRs were examined by light microscopy, electron microscopy, and immunohistochemistry (IHC), using antibodies against autophagosomal membranes (LC3), autophagic cargo (p62), and lysosomal membranes (LAMP2). Biochemical screening of urine and fibroblasts of 2 affected dogs was performed. Under basal conditions, the affected fibroblasts contained significantly more LC3-II and LC3-positive vesicles than did the controls. Morphologically, several cells, including serous secretory epithelium, endothelial cells, pericytes, plasma cells, and macrophages, contained cytoplasmic vacuoles with an ultrastructure resembling enlarged amphisomes, endosomes, or multivesicular bodies. IHC showed strong membranous LAMP2 positivity only in sweat glands. The results show that basal but not induced autophagy is altered in affected fibroblasts. The ultrastructure of affected cells is compatible with altered autophagic and endo-lysosomal vesicular traffic. The findings in this spontaneous disease provide insight into possible tissue-specific roles of basal autophagy.

A Missense Variant in KCNJ10 in Belgian Shepherd Dogs Affected by Spongy Degeneration with Cerebellar Ataxia (SDCA1).

Spongy degeneration with cerebellar ataxia (SDCA) is a severe neurodegenerative disease with monogenic autosomal recessive inheritance in Malinois dogs, one of the four varieties of the Belgian Shepherd breed. We performed a genetic investigation in six families and seven isolated cases of Malinois dogs with signs of cerebellar dysfunction. Linkage analysis revealed an unexpected genetic heterogeneity within the studied cases. The affected dogs from four families and one isolated case shared a ∼1.4 Mb common homozygous haplotype segment on chromosome 38. Whole genome sequence analysis of three affected and 140 control dogs revealed a missense variant in the KCNJ10 gene encoding a potassium channel (c.986T>C; p.Leu329Pro). Pathogenic variants in KCNJ10 were reported previously in humans, mice, and dogs with neurological phenotypes. Therefore, we consider KCNJ10:c.986T>C the most likely candidate causative variant for one subtype of SDCA in Malinois dogs, which we propose to term spongy degeneration with cerebellar ataxia 1 (SDCA1). However, our study also comprised samples from 12 Malinois dogs with cerebellar dysfunction which were not homozygous for this variant, suggesting a different genetic basis in these dogs. A retrospective detailed clinical and histopathological analysis revealed subtle neuropathological differences with respect to SDCA1-affected dogs. Thus, our study highlights the genetic and phenotypic complexity underlying cerebellar dysfunction in Malinois dogs and provides the basis for a genetic test to eradicate one specific neurodegenerative disease from the breeding population. These dogs represent an animal model for the human EAST syndrome.

MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING FINDINGS IN SMALL RUMINANTS WITH BRAIN DISEASE.

Brain disease is an important cause of neurologic deficits in small ruminants, however few MRI features have been described. The aim of this retrospective, case series study was to describe MRI characteristics in a group of small ruminants with confirmed brain disease. A total of nine small ruminants (six sheep and three goats) met inclusion criteria. All had neurologic disorders localized to the brain and histopathologic confirmation. In animals with toxic-metabolic diseases, there were bilaterally symmetric MRI lesions affecting either the gray matter (one animal with polioencephalomalacia) or the white matter (two animals with enterotoxemia). In animals with suppurative inflammation, asymmetric focal brainstem lesions were present (two animals with listeric encephalitis), or lesions typical of an intra-axial (one animal) or dural abscess (one animal), respectively. No MRI lesions were detected in one animal with suspected viral cerebellitis and one animal with parasitic migration tracts. No neoplastic or vascular lesions were identified in this case series. Findings from the current study supported the use of MRI for diagnosing brain diseases in small ruminants.

Longitudinal extension of myelomalacia by intramedullary and subdural hemorrhage in a canine model of spinal cord injury.

BACKGROUND CONTEXT: In canine intervertebral disc (IVD) extrusion, a spontaneous animal model of spinal cord injury, hemorrhage is a consistent finding. In rodent models, hemorrhage might be involved in secondary tissue destruction by biochemical mechanisms. PURPOSE: This study aimed to investigate a causal association between the extents of intramedullary, subdural and epidural hemorrhage and the severity of spinal cord damage following IVD extrusion in dogs. STUDY DESIGN/SETTING: A retrospective study using histologic spinal cord sections from 83 dogs euthanized following IVD extrusion was carried out. METHODS: The degree of hemorrhage (intramedullary, subdural, epidural), the degree of spinal cord damage in the epicenter (white and gray matter), and the longitudinal extent of myelomalacia were graded. Associations between the extent of hemorrhage and the degree of spinal cord damage were evaluated statistically. RESULTS: Intramedullary and subdural hemorrhages were significantly associated with the degree of white (p<.001/ p=.004) and gray (both p<.001) matter damage, and with the longitudinal extension of myelomalacia (p<.001/p=.005). Intriguingly, accumulation of hemorrhagic cord debris inside or dorsal to a distended and ruptured central canal in segments distant to the epicenter of the lesion was observed exhibiting a wave-like pattern on longitudinal assessment. The occurrence of this debris accumulation was associated with high degrees of tissue destruction (all p<.001). CONCLUSIONS: Tissue liquefaction and increased intramedullary pressure associated with hemorrhage are involved in the progression of spinal cord destruction in a canine model of spinal cord injury and ascending or descending myelomalacia. Functional and dynamic studies are needed to investigate this concept further.

A RAB3GAP1 SINE Insertion in Alaskan Huskies with Polyneuropathy, Ocular Abnormalities, and Neuronal Vacuolation (POANV) Resembling Human Warburg Micro Syndrome 1 (WARBM1).

We observed a hereditary phenotype in Alaskan Huskies that was characterized by polyneuropathy with ocular abnormalities and neuronal vacuolation (POANV). The affected dogs developed a progressive severe ataxia, which led to euthanasia between 8 and 16 months of age. The pedigrees were consistent with a monogenic autosomal recessive inheritance. We localized the causative genetic defect to a 4 Mb interval on chromosome 19 by a combined linkage and homozygosity mapping approach. Whole genome sequencing of one affected dog, an obligate carrier, and an unrelated control revealed a 218-bp SINE insertion into exon 7 of the RAB3GAP1 gene. The SINE insertion was perfectly associated with the disease phenotype in a cohort of 43 Alaskan Huskies, and it was absent from 541 control dogs of diverse other breeds. The SINE insertion induced aberrant splicing and led to a transcript with a greatly altered exon 7. RAB3GAP1 loss-of-function variants in humans cause Warburg Micro Syndrome 1 (WARBM1), which is characterized by additional developmental defects compared to canine POANV, whereas Rab3gap1-deficient mice have a much milder phenotype than either humans or dogs. Thus, the RAB3GAP1 mutant Alaskan Huskies provide an interesting intermediate phenotype that may help to better understand the function of RAB3GAP1 in development. Furthermore, the identification of the presumed causative genetic variant will enable genetic testing to avoid the nonintentional breeding of affected dogs.

Assessment of Intramedullary Spinal Pressure in Small Breed Dogs With Thoracolumbar Disk Extrusion Undergoing Hemilaminectomy.

OBJECTIVE: To assess intramedullary spinal pressure (IMP) in small breed dogs with thoracolumbar disk extrusion. STUDY DESIGN: Prospective cohort study. ANIMALS: Small breed dogs (n = 14) with thoracolumbar disk extrusion undergoing hemilaminectomy and healthy chondrodystrophic laboratory dogs (control; n = 3) without spinal disease. METHODS: Diagnosis was based on clinical and neurological examinations and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and was confirmed intraoperatively. A standardized anesthesia protocol and surgical procedure were used to minimize factors that could influence IMP. Intramedullary pressure was measured through a minidurotomy at the site of spinal cord compression using a fiber optic catheter inserted perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the spinal cord. Measurements were taken after hemilaminectomy and again after removal of extruded disk material. RESULTS: Affected dogs had significantly higher IMP compared to control dogs (P = .008) and IMP decreased significantly post-decompression compared with initial values (P < .001). No correlation was found between IMP and neurologic grade, degree of spinal cord compression on MRI, or signal intensity changes on MRI. CONCLUSION: Acute thoracolumbar disk extrusion is associated with increased IMP in small breed dogs and surgical decompression results in an immediate decrease of IMP.

Assessment of Intrathecal Pressure in Chondrodystrophic Dogs With Acute Thoracolumbar Disk Disease.

OBJECTIVES: To assess intrathecal pressure (ITP) in chondrodystrophic dogs with thoracolumbar disk extrusion. STUDY DESIGN: Prospective cohort study. ANIMALS: Group 1: 11 chondrodystrophic dogs with thoracolumbar disk extrusion and present deep pain sensation. Group 2 (control): 3 healthy chondrodystrophic laboratory dogs without spinal disease. METHODS: Diagnosis was based on neurologic signs, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) findings, and surgical confirmation. Blood pressure was maintained within physiologic range during anesthesia. A standardized surgical procedure was applied to minimize factors that could influence measurement readings. An extended hemilaminectomy was performed and ITP was measured with a fiber optic catheter. The catheter was inserted in the subarachnoid space 1 spinal segment caudal to the level of herniation and its tip was advanced to the site of compression. RESULTS: Significantly higher ITP occurred in chondrodystrophic dogs with acute thoracolumbar disk disease compared with controls. ITP was not associated with duration of clinical signs, neurologic status, outcome, degree of spinal cord compression, or signal intensity changes as assessed by MRI. CONCLUSION: Acute thoracolumbar disk disease leads to elevated ITP in chondrodystrophic dogs, which may contribute to increased compression of spinal cord parenchyma.

A missense change in the ATG4D gene links aberrant autophagy to a neurodegenerative vacuolar storage disease.

Inherited neurodegenerative disorders are debilitating diseases that occur across different species. We have performed clinical, pathological and genetic studies to characterize a novel canine neurodegenerative disease present in the Lagotto Romagnolo dog breed. Affected dogs suffer from progressive cerebellar ataxia, sometimes accompanied by episodic nystagmus and behavioral changes. Histological examination revealed unique pathological changes, including profound neuronal cytoplasmic vacuolization in the nervous system, as well as spheroid formation and cytoplasmic aggregation of vacuoles in secretory epithelial tissues and mesenchymal cells. Genetic analyses uncovered a missense change, c.1288G>A; p.A430T, in the autophagy-related ATG4D gene on canine chromosome 20 with a highly significant disease association (p = 3.8 x 10-136) in a cohort of more than 2300 Lagotto Romagnolo dogs. ATG4D encodes a poorly characterized cysteine protease belonging to the macroautophagy pathway. Accordingly, our histological analyses indicated altered autophagic flux in affected tissues. The knockdown of the zebrafish homologue atg4da resulted in a widespread developmental disturbance and neurodegeneration in the central nervous system. Our study describes a previously unknown canine neurological disease with particular pathological features and implicates the ATG4D protein as an important autophagy mediator in neuronal homeostasis. The canine phenotype serves as a model to delineate the disease-causing pathological mechanism(s) and ATG4D function, and can also be used to explore treatment options. Furthermore, our results reveal a novel candidate gene for human neurodegeneration and enable the development of a genetic test for veterinary diagnostic and breeding purposes.

Listeria monocytogenes spreads within the brain by actin-based intra-axonal migration.

Listeria monocytogenes rhombencephalitis is a severe progressive disease despite a swift intrathecal immune response. Based on previous observations, we hypothesized that the disease progresses by intra-axonal spread within the central nervous system. To test this hypothesis, neuroanatomical mapping of lesions, immunofluorescence analysis, and electron microscopy were performed on brains of ruminants with naturally occurring rhombencephalitis. In addition, infection assays were performed in bovine brain cell cultures. Mapping of lesions revealed a consistent pattern with a preferential affection of certain nuclear areas and white matter tracts, indicating that Listeria monocytogenes spreads intra-axonally within the brain along interneuronal connections. These results were supported by immunofluorescence and ultrastructural data localizing Listeria monocytogenes inside axons and dendrites associated with networks of fibrillary structures consistent with actin tails. In vitro infection assays confirmed that bacteria were moving within axon-like processes by employing their actin tail machinery. Remarkably, in vivo, neutrophils invaded the axonal space and the axon itself, apparently by moving between split myelin lamellae of intact myelin sheaths. This intra-axonal invasion of neutrophils was associated with various stages of axonal degeneration and bacterial phagocytosis. Paradoxically, the ensuing adaxonal microabscesses appeared to provide new bacterial replication sites, thus supporting further bacterial spread. In conclusion, intra-axonal bacterial migration and possibly also the innate immune response play an important role in the intracerebral spread of the agent and hence the progression of listeric rhombencephalitis.